Student Work Completed and in Progress

Bachelor with Honors - Completed

Bundock, Annie

Probing the Aging Paradox: Can Personal Goals, Motives, and Coping Skills Account for Well-being in Later Life?

The broad aim of the current study was provide a better of accounting of differences in well-being between younger and older persons by focusing on the potential mediating role of four resources. Two of the resources under investigation reflected possible age differences in the motivation underlying goal selection and goal pursuit. The first of these addressed differences in happiness orientation or guiding beliefs about the type of personal goals and projects most likely to produce happiness (Peterson, Park, & Seligman, 2005). The second motivational resource reflected autonomy or self-determination in the pursuit of chosen goals (Sheldon & Kasser, 2001). Two further resources were the way older people respond when the attainment of valued goals is frustrated or blocked (i.e., stressful events occur), both in terms of dispositional differences in coping style (Brandstadter & Renner, 1990) and in terms of situation-specific appraisals of personal efficacy for particular coping behaviours (Chesney, Neilands, Chambers, Taylor, & Folkman, 2006).

In more specific terms, the study purpose was to determine if greater autonomous motivation, happiness orientation (pleasure, meaning, or engagement), accommodative coping style, and efficacy for specific coping behaviours, as a set of resources, could account for the greater well-being found among older compared to younger persons. Because well-being has usually been defined in terms of Diener’s (1984) model of subjective well-being, previous research was extended by also considering well-being in terms of Ryff’s (1989) model of meaningful life pursuits and Keyes’ (1998) model of successful functioning within one’s social world. This extension to previous research was supported by findings that these three aspects of well-being are distinct, but related, second-order constructs within a hierarchical structure of well-being (Gallagher, Lopez, & Preacher, 2009).

Children’s Threat Appraisals and Emotional Reactions to Interpersonal and Academic Stressors

All children will experience stressful events, and such stress and reactions to stress have been linked to the development of both internationalising and externalising problems, such as depression and conduct disorder. The most common stressful events are often referred to as daily hassles, such as problems with peers, parents and academics. Although many studies have examined stress and coping, few have focused on appraisals of stressors, although appraisals have been theorised to be another important part of understanding how stress can impact upon mental health (Compas et al., 2001; Lazarus & Folkman, 1994; Skinner & Zimmer-Gembecl, 2007). The overall aim of this study was to examine children’s appraisals of threats associated with particular stressful events and their anticipated emotional reactions using standardised video excerpts of stressful events. Video was used to alleviate the variability that occurs when participants’ are asked to report about their own stressful experiences, as well as to assist children to place themselves in each situation. Children’s reactions to six common stressors were investigated. Stressors included being bullied, not being picked for a team, having an argument with a parent, witnessing parents in an argument, failing an exam, and being accused of cheating by a teacher. These stressors were depicted via videotaped scenes selected from children’s movies. Children’s appraisals of the stressful events were examined by gathering reports of their perceived threat to their needs for relatedness, competence, and autonomy. In addition, children reported how they would feel, including providing reports of their anticipated sadness, fear, anger, and embarrassment. Associations between threats and emotions were anticipated, and differences in emotional reactions and appraisals across grades and between boys and girls were expected. Participants were 277 children in grades 4 to 7 who were students at two state primary schools on the Gold Coast. As was expected, children who appraised more threat after viewing the stressful events also reported stronger emotions reactions. However, opposite than expected, there were no grade differences in threat or emotion appraisals. As expected, girls compared to boys appraised stressful events as more threatening to relatedness and competence, and reported higher levels of sadness and fear. Finally, exploratory analysis was conducted to further examine how particular threat and emotion appraisals may be intercorrelated. Implications for theory, study limitations, the need for future research on anger and embarrassment, and other future research directions are discussed.

Kelly, Marguerite

Dating goals as Correlates of Behaviour and Satisfaction among Same-sex and Other-sex Attracted Young People

The primary objective of the current study was to apply Cantor and Sanderson’s (1998) life-task model to focus on dating goals, behaviours and life satisfaction during the life period spanning late adolescence to emerging adulthood (ages 18 to 30). Rather than focusing on only one dating goal, however, the life-task model was also expanded to focus on four different dating goals that were founded in theories of the development of dating (Brown, 1999; Connolly & Goldberg, 1999) and previous research (Zimmer-Gembeck & Hughes, 2009; Zimmer-Gembeck & Petherick, 2006). These dating goals including goals for intimate interaction, exploration of identify, gaining status, and the pursuit of sexual behaviour. For each domain, associations between dating goals, goal-consistent behaviours and life satisfaction were examined to investigate how young people negotiate the dating life-task, and whether goals and behaviour had implications for their satisfaction. The influence of sexual orientation (an individual difference) and gender (a subcultural factor) also were explored.

The first key finding of the current study is that behaviour rather than goals was associated with satisfaction in the intimacy and sex domains, whereas individuals were more satisfied in the self-focussed identity domain when they reported more independent goal attainment behaviour and had more identity goals. In the fourth domain, status, neither goals or behaviour were associated with satisfaction with status.

When same- and other-sex attracted young people were compared on goals, behaviour and satisfaction in each domain, the second key finding was that few differences emerged. However, some gender differences were found, with women reporting more self-focussed identity goals and more preference for affiliation than men. Finally, an interaction between gender and sexual orientation was found with same-sex attracted men reporting more affiliation than other-sex attracted men, a pattern which was reversed for females.

Kopp, Lyndall

Autonomy Support and the Thin Ideal: Applying Self-Determination Theory to Explain Women’s Body Dissatisfaction and Regulation of Eating

Body image is fundamental to the self-concept, particularly among women, and body dissatisfaction has been identified as an important cause of dysfunctional eating behaviour. Previous research has identified internalisation of the thin-ideal as a risk factor for the development of body dissatisfaction and dysfunctional eating, and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) has been employed to investigate motivational factors underlying individual differences in internalisation. One aim in the current study is to test whether self-determination in female University students (N = 250) mediates the relationship between body dissatisfaction and regulation of eating behaviours. A secondary aim is to explore whether autonomy support from an important other (i.e., a family member or friends) plays a role in eating behaviours.

Features of Parent and Peer Relationships as Covariates of Preadolescents’ Rejection Sensitivity

Many theorists argue that all humans have a need to belong. One foundation for this argument have been the demonstrated association of social acceptance with happiness and successful development, and the evidence that actual or perceived rejection by others is associated with problems such as depression and anxiety. Rejection sensitivity has been proposed as an internalised legacy of interpersonal rejection that accounts for the influence of rejection experiences on concurrent and future social and emotional functioning. Although there have been some investigations to support these propositions, little is known about the relational risk and protective factors associated with rejection sensitivity. In the current study the risk of rejection and the potential protective roles of acceptance and friendship, and their interactions, were investigated as correlates of children’s rejection sensitivity.

Measuring Intimacy and Self-focused Identity Dating Goals in Late Adolescence: A Revision of the Social Dating Goals Scale

For most late adolescents (defined as between the ages of 18 to 22), meeting potential romantic partners and developing close dating relationships are important pursuits. However, individuals may approach the task of social dating differently, depending on their goals. Some may have higher intimacy social dating goals (i.e., seeking to establish intimate relationships focused on mutual dependence, open communication, self-disclosure and emotional attachment). Others may view social dating as an arena to realise prominent self-focused identity goals (e.g., self-reliance, self-exploration, sexual experimentation, autonomy from the family, and identity formation). From a theoretical orientation that highlighted identity and intimacy development as competing forces, Sanderson and Cantor (1995) developed the Social Dating Goals Scale (SDGS) to measure intimacy versus self-focused identity social dating goals in late adolescence and emerging adulthood.

The Association of Parental Psychological Control and Rejection Sensitivity in the Context of Traditional Parenting Dimensions: Parental Warmth and Parental Autonomy Support

Research suggests that family relationships in childhood are the cornerstone to relationship formation in adulthood. Specifically, individuals who perceive their attachment figures as rejecting of them may develop anxious expectations about rejection in interpersonal situations. This study extended on previous research by examining three traditional dimensions of parenting and the extent to which they were associated with rejection sensitivity in emerging adults. Parenting dimensions of warmth, psychological control and autonomy support were also tested to ascertain if they interacted to better account for the variation in rejection sensitivity. Additional research questions considered the similarity between parental psychological control and parental autonomy support and whether behaviours of mothers and fathers were associated with rejection sensitivity.

Mental Health among Adolescents: Associations with Disclosure and Secrecy from Parents and Best Friends

The focus of the current study was on disclosure and secrecy to parents and best friends as correlates of young university students’ mental health (i.e., depression, anxiety, stress, social acceptance and self-worth). In addition, it was expected that the mental health of individuals who are more autonomous would be less correlated with disclosure/secrecy to parents and best friends than those who are less autonomous. Hence, participants’ level of autonomy was examined as a moderator of associations between disclosure/secrecy and mental health. Participants were 100 students aged from 17-19 years (19 males and 81 females). Adolescents were found to disclose more to their best friends, and to keep more secrets from their parents. No associations were found between parent disclosure and mental health.

Contingencies of Self-Esteem as Correlates of Reckless and Unlawful Behaviour in Emerging Adults

Recent research on self-esteem suggests that both state and trait levels of self-esteem are influenced by the contingencies on which individuals stake their worth, indicating a multifaceted psychosocial construct based on continuos person-environment interactions. The aim of this study was to examine associations between contingencies of self-esteem and reckless and unlawful behaviour in emerging adults (age 18-25). Under investigation was the extent to which certain contingencies may be associated with engagement in reckless and unlawful behaviours, including examining associations for males versus females. XXX participants (XX% male) completed measures on contingencies of self-esteem and reckless, unlawful and other problem behaviours. Social control-related contingencies are expected to increase with age and be associated with lower levels of problem behaviours, while peer-related contingencies are expected to decrease with age and be associated with higher levels of problem behaviours. Some associations between contingencies of self-esteem and problem behaviours are expected to be moderated by gender. If hypotheses are supported, the results from this study will provide information about how contingencies of self-esteem may be targeted, rather than focusing on high or low self-esteem, to help ameliorate problem behaviours in emerging adulthood.

Hanisch, Michelle

Parents and Partners: Emotional Autonomy, and Context Specificity of Voice and Relationship Quality.

Theories emphasizing the importance of remaining connected to family while establishing autonomy guided a study of adolescents’ emotional autonomy, “voice” (e.g., engagement in authentic self-expression) with parents and romantic partners, and quality of relationships with parents and partners. Contrary to expectations, positive parenting qualities were negatively associated with emotional autonomy, but, as expected, positively associated with voice when interacting with parents. Romantic relationship qualities contributed positively to the level of voice with romantic partners, but romantic qualities were not associated with emotional autonomy or voice with parents. Contrary to expectations, there was little support for relational continuity. Voice was found to be specific to each relationship type and to be predicted by relationship qualities within that same relationship. Findings support emotional autonomy as more representative of detachment from parents, but show that voice may be an indication of adolescent autonomous behavior that covaries with more positive relationships with others.

Hendricksen, Kym

Observing Parents’ Behaviours to Identify Mechanisms Linking Parents’ Socioemotional Functioning to Young Children’s Symptomatology

The identification of the correlates of young children’s behavioural and mental health problems continues to be a high research priority. The family is often described as the primary socialising influence on children, and parenting and other experiences within the family have been shown to be correlated with children’s mental health problems. The primary purpose of this study was to determine whether observed mothers’ behaviours when interacting with their children accounted for known associations between mothers’ socioemotional functioning (child abuse potential, depressive symptoms, and levels of child-related stress within the parenting role) and children’s symptomatology (externalising behaviours such as aggression and internalising symptoms such as anxiety). Observed behaviours included mothers’ praises and other verbalisations, and their sensitivity during short, free play sessions with their children. Participants were 84 mother-child dyads. Children were aged 3 to 7 years. All children were at risk of or had a history of maltreatment. As predicted, there was a direct positive association between maternal stress and children’s externalising problems and internalising symptoms, but mothers’ abuse potential and depression were not significantly associated with children’s symptoms. There also were no significant associations of mothers’ observed verbalisations with maternal socioemotional functioning measures and children’s symptomatology. Observed maternal sensitivity was associated with stress and children’s symptomatology, supporting further tests of mediation. However, there was little support for observed maternal sensitivity as a mediator. Once the association of maternal stress with child symptomatology was accounted for, there was no added predictive impact of maternal sensitivity, and thus no significant mediation effect.

Locke, Elizabeth M.

The Context of Coping: Connection, Regulation and Autonomy Support Within the Family and School

This study investigated whether the socialization environments of adolescents influence their coping responses when experiencing problems at home and school. According to a motivational perspective (Skinner & Wellborn, 1994) individuals across the entire life span have psychological needs for relatedness, competence and autonomy. The theory of coping derived from this perspective postulates that environments that meet theses needs by providing connection, regulation and autonomy support improve children’s adaptation and functioning. Two social contexts, home and school, were examined in this study. In addition two models of socialization, namely a family primacy model and a context-specific model were tested (Barber & Olsen, 1997). A convenience sample of 490 Year 8, 9 and 10 secondary school students from two urban schools in southeast Queensland completed a questionnaire reporting their experiences of connection, regulation and autonomy support at home and school, and their coping behaviors in these domains. High collinearity resulted in these three dimensions within both domains being combined to form measures of family context and teacher context prior to analysis. In testing a family primacy model, finding supported previous research that had concluded family to be a powerful coping socialization agent (Lieder, Fearnow & Miller, 1996). Family context was significantly positively associated with adolescent active coping, and negatively associated with avoidant coping behaviors when problems were experienced at home and in school. However, family context was not associated with active coping at school after adjusting for teacher context. When testing a context-specific model, teacher context was significantly positively associated with active coping behaviors with response to problems at school and at home, both before and after family relationships were accounted for. Furthermore, teacher context was also significantly negatively associated with avoidant coping with problems at home before family influences were taken into account, but not after this influence was removed. Findings were discussed in terms of conceptual and practical implications. Limitations of the current study and directions for future research were also summarized.

Pronk, Rhiarne

The Peer Group Environment and Children’s Psychological Functioning: Investigation of an Extended Social-cognitive Mediation Model.

In the current study, a model was proposed and tested that examined peer acceptance (and conversely, rejection) as rated by classmates as a direct antecedent of children’s own perceptions of their social acceptance by peers, and as an outcome of children’s prosocial behaviour. It was also expected that children’s perceptions of social acceptance would be directly associated with children’s functioning (depression and self-worth) and mediate the association between peer acceptance and children’s functioning. This is an extended version of the social-cognitive mediation model of childhood depressive symptoms tested by Cole and Turner (1993). According to this model, children’s perceptions of their peer acceptance mediate the impact actual peer acceptance has upon a child’s depressive symptoms. The roles of children’s prosocial behaviours and the importance children place on peer relationships, and a consideration of the influence of gender were extensions on this model.

Dating as a Context for the Late Adolescent Life Tasks of Identity and Intimacy and the Role of Gender

Erikson (1968) proposed identity and intimacy as normative developmental tasks of late adolescence and early adulthood. Identity and intimacy are, therefore, expected to be tasks that structure everyday pursuits during this period of life. Social dating is one pursuit that engages most young people (Kelly & Hansen, 1987). Some pursue dating with a focus on identity goals, which are characterized by self-reliance and self-exploration, while others pursue dating to fuffill their intimacy goals, which are characterized by open communication, interdependence, and close emotional bonds (Sanderson & Cantor, 1995). Extending previous work, this study investigated age and gender differences in the goals that late adolescents pursue in dating. Additionally, the particular ordering of the life tasks of identity and intimacy were empirically examined in this social dating context. Erikson (1968) believed that identity must precede the pursuit if intimacy.

Attachment Style, Parental Psychological Control and Adolescent Adjustment

The quality of intimate relationships is important to subjective well-being (Parkes, Stevenson-Hinde & Marris, 1991). Attachment theory proposed by Bowlby (1973) states early social experiences prompt the development of a set of expectations, internal working models, which influence subsequent relationships. Researchers have found different internal working models, referred to as attachment styles, are related to differences in psychosocial functioning consistently finding securely attached persons fair better across multiple psychosocial variables. Parenting behaviours that restrict a child’s autonomy and stifle their independence, referred to as parental psychological control, has also been linked to impaired functioning.

A Multiinformant, Multimeasure Study of Young Children’s Social Behaviours, Peer Relationships, and Psychosocial Adjustment

The present study aimed to extend on previous research by investigating the contribution made by children’s social behaviour (i.e. overt and relational aggression, and prosocial behaviour) to their level of acceptance or rejection by the peer group and current psychological adjustment in their first years of formal schooling, 5-7 years. Multiple informants and sociometric techniques were used to obtain data to help inform the debate as to which is a more valid method. Peer status was assessed in 6 classrooms (N = 84, 47 boys and 37 girls) using both peer rating and nomination procedures. Measures of children’s social behaviours were obtained form both child and teacher reports. Teachers also provided information on children’s level of adjustment (i.e. general well-being and school performance). Contrary to previous research, boys were higher in both forms of aggression, while girls displayed more prosocial behaviour. As predicted children classified as rejected or controversial were found to display greater levels of both forms of aggression, and children classified as popular displayed more prosocial behaviour. Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that all three social behaviours made an independent contribution to the prediction of children’s level of acceptance/rejection by the peer group and concurrent adjustment. However results did vary according to the source used to obtain the information. Implications for early intervention are suggested by the results, in particular the addition of relational forms of aggression to current strategies.

Wright, June L.

The Influence of Parental Psychological Control and Rejection Sensitivity: Expectations and Behaviors in Adolescent Romantic Relationships

This research investigated the link between parental psychological control, rejection sensitivity (RS) and the attachment strategies of overinvestment or avoidance in late adolescent romantic relationships. Gender differences in the perceptions of psychological control were also investigated. According to attachment theory parental rejection will impact on working models of relationships and lead adolescents to think, behave and react in ways that may perpetuate rejecting experiences in subsequent close relationships. Psychological control has been defined as behaviors that intrude on the emotional world of the adolescent and constrain autonomy and individuation, and include subtle parental rejection. Individuals who are rejection sensitive anxiously expect and readily perceive rejection in the behavior of others. RS has been linked to repeated experiences of rejection from significant others. This research looked at the possibility that RS mediated the link between psychological control and overinvestment and avoidance in romantic relationships. Results provided mixed support for the hypothesis proposed. No gender differences were found in the perception of psychological control. RS partially mediated the relationship between psychological control and overinvestment and avoidance strategies. Therefore, psychological control impacted on the attachment strategies in late adolescent romantic relationships in ways not connected to RS. These results suggest further research into the relationship between psychological control and attachment overinvestment/avoidance in romantic relationships is warranted. Practically, there results suggest that educating parents in positive parenting in an effort to reduce psychological control may lead to a reduction in rejection sensitivity and more positive outcomes for adolescent romantic relationships, and may break the pattern of problematic relationships perpetuated by many individuals.

Bachelor with Honors - In Progress

Arnold, Vanessa

Social Dating Goals Among Young Couples: The implications for Relationship Satisfaction and Romantic Partner Behaviour

The development of healthy romantic relationships often progress from close friendships, where the individual learns to balance relatedness and autonomy. This is particularly evident in late adolescence, a time when exploration is still taking place. However, while it has been assumed that forming an identity is crucial in the pursuit of intimacy goals, it is possible for both dating goals to coexist during this time of exploration. In fact, theories have suggested four main social dating goals that individuals may express within their romantic relationships and have identified them as intimacy, self-focussed identity, social status and sexual activity. The proposed study will examine these four social dating goals in couples and test their associations with relationship satisfaction and romantic partner behaviour (warmth, structure, autonomy, rejection, coercion, and chaos). Participants will be 75 unmarried couples (N = 150) aged 25 and under. It is expected that, at both the level of the individual and the couple, higher intimacy dating goals will be associated with greater relationship satisfaction, more positive romantic partner behaviour, and less negative behaviour. Moreover, after accounting for intimacy goals, it is expected that individuals and couples who report higher identity, status and sex goals or couples who have more discrepant dating goals will be less satisfied with their relationships, engage in less positive romantic behaviour, and report more negative romantic behaviour.

Scholarship in Developmental Research and Social Systems